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This study explored the relationship between interactions and perceived learning outcomes (PLO) among DTCE students from University of Manchester in online learning. Perspectives on both direct and vicarious learner-learner interaction (LLI) and direct and vicarious learner-instructor interaction (LII) were collected from 55 participants through an electronic questionnaire. Descriptive data analysis, correlation analysis, and multiple linear regression analysis were employed to interpret the survey data. The research findings indicated that participants showed a slightly greater inclination towards LII compared to LLI. When interaction was categorized into direct LLI, vicarious LLI, direct LII, and vicarious LII, participants exhibited a slightly higher tendency towards both vicarious LLI and vicarious LII compared to direct interactions (DI). Both LLI and LII, as well as vicarious interaction (VI), exhibited significantly strong and positive correlations with PLO. Furthermore, DI displayed a moderate positive correlation. The results of the regression analysis indicated that LLI, DI, and VI could be used to predict the levels of PLO. The results of the study proved that the exploration between interactions and PLO was meaningful and that participants did benefit from interactive behaviors. The innovation of this study lies in considering the potential relationship between vicarious interaction and PLO, providing a foundation for future related research, and identifying the limitations of existing frameworks.

The innovation of this study lies in considering the potential relationship between vicarious interaction and PLO, providing a foundation for future related research, and identifying the limitations of existing frameworks.